Mythology

Mythology

This article is from Jim Cornish

Creation Myth
Introduction

The Vikings were the early medieval descendants of stone-aged people who migrated northward from the desert regions of the middle east into northern Europe, sometime around the end of the last ice age. Like most stone-age cultures at that time, these people created a religion of sorts, to help them explain the world and their place in it.

The ancient Scandinavians found themselves in a rugged land of great seasonal contrasts. Summers, marked by a mid-night sun, were short but warm. Winters were long and cold and frequented by storms off the frigid North Atlantic. During the endless winter nights, the skies were illuminated by the dancing lights of the Aurora Borealis. Viking myths clearly reflected this world and their struggles to survive in it.

To make sense of their surroundings, the ancient ancestors of the Vikings created a series of deities. They imagined that their world was fashioned by powerful gods whose presence was evident in every natural force they experienced and in the fortunes and misfortunes of their daily lives.

The Great Gap

The Vikings believed that in the beginning, a great abyss (gap) the size of which no one could fathom existed in the centre of space. On one side of the abyss was Niflheim (ne ful ham). It was filled with cold, ice, mist and darkness and from its huge spring flowed twelve large rivers. As the waters flowed into the cold abyss, ice blocks formed and filled one side of the gap.

On the opposite side of the abyss was Muspelheim (mus pel ham). It was filled with the fire, warmth and brightness and was guarded by a flame giant whose sword sent great showers of sparks into the gap.

The Birth and Death of Ymir, The First Frost Giant

Eventually, the fire of Muspelheim and the ice of Niflheim regions mixed in the abyss. A mist rose from the gap and froze to create an ice giant named Ymir. An enormous cow was also created to nourish him.

From a salty ice block licked by the cow, the first god, Buri emerged. Soon more giants appeared-two from drops of sweat under Ymir's arms two giants and two more from his Ymir's feet. As time passed, even more giants were born. Eventually, there was a struggle between the giants and the gods. The struggle continued until the birth of Odin and his two brothers Vili and Ve. Their father was Borr, the son of Buri, and their mother Bestla, the daughter of a frost giant. Together with their father, the three brothers killed Ymir. His blood gushed into the abyss, drowning all but two of the frost giants who escaped the deluge in a boat. The Vikings imagined that all frost giants descended from these two. They also imagined that from Ymir's corpse, Odin and his brothers created the universe.

Odin Creates the Universe

Odin and his brothers first fashioned the earth (Midgard) from Ymir's flesh and, using his eyebrows, encircled it with a protective wall. Using Ymir's unbroken bones, they created mountains and from his teeth the rocks, boulders and stones. Using Ymir's blood, they created the sea and lakes. Using the dead giant's skull, they created the endless expanse of the sky and supported its corners with four dwarfs (Nordi, Surdi, Austri, Westri) from whose names we get the four main points of the compass; North, South, East and West. From Ymir's brains they created the clouds and from the sparks of Muspell, they created the sun, moon and stars to give light to the world. While the stars were fixed, the sun and moon were placed in golden chariots. Two riders named Day and Night were charged with guiding the sun and moon on their daily journey across the sky. They were pursued by a wolf intent on devouring them and from time to time, it did catch them in his mouth. Because of the cries of the terrified people of Midgard, the wolf released them, only to pursue them once again.

The Vikings also imagined that by using the rotting remains of Ymir, Odin and his brothers created trolls, dwarfs, gnomes, fairies and elves. The brothers confined the dwarfs to the darkness of the underworld during the day. He made them the collectors of gold and silver which they stowed in secret crevices in the rocks. The fairies and elves were given the air between heaven and earth and attended to the needs of the flowers, plants, butterflies and birds.

The Creation of Humans

After the creation of Midgard, the Vikings imagined that Odin and his brothers created the first humans. From a branch of an ash tree they created a man named Askr and from the branch of an elm tree, they created a woman named Embla . They were both placed in Midgard and from the human race grew. Because Odin cared for his human creations, future generations of their offspring were watched and protected by the gods. It is in this part of the creation myth that Loki, an offspring of frost giants and blood brother of Odin, is introduced. Loki gave the humans blood. To influence the destinies of humans, a rainbow bridge called Bifrost connected Asgard and Midgard.

Yggdrasil, The World Tree

The nine worlds of the universe the Vikings imagined existed within a world tree named Yggdrasil (egg-draw-sill). Asgard, the realm of the gods was at the top, Midgard in the middle and Hel at its roots. The realms of the dwarfs and the frost giants also existed within the tree.
The Yggdrasil tree had three large roots, each one of which dipped into three different wells. The first root dipped into the waters of Mimir's spring. These waters were filled with wisdom. The second root lay in the Well of Urd, where mythical creatures weaved the fates of mankind and tended to the needs of the tree. The third root fell into the dark waters where a dragon tore gnawed unceasingly at the tree. Four stags nibbled hungrily at the tree's green buds, while goats tore at the bark. High in the branches an eagle sat with a hawk perched upon his brow. a squirrel scurried up and down the Ash all day carrying insults between the eagle above to the dragon below.

The Myths and the Viking's Natural Surroundings

Because the ancient Norse were trying to explain the natural world in their myths, it is important to connect the life and times of their mythical characters with the world they experienced. It is easy to image that Niflheim and the frost giants represented the cold and icy parts of their northern latitude home, especially in the winter. It is equally easy to imagine that Muspelheim represented the warmer lands and climates they first visited as traders and later returned to as raiders. In astronomy, in its easy to image that eclipses of the sun and moon occurred when the hungry wolf caught the chariots carrying Day and Night. Even the cow created from the ice to nourish Ymir is connected to Viking life. They were successful farmers, and saw the cow as a source of life (milk and meat for food and leather for clothing) for its people.

The Vikings and their ancestors did not record their religious beliefs. They relied on storytelling to pass their beliefs on from one generation to the next. In the mid-thirteenth century, nearly two hundred years after the end of the Viking Age, and Icelandic historian and poet decided to write down the tales he had heard. Collectively, his works is called the Prose Eddas. With a few exceptions, they are the only written record of the Viking's pagan beliefs.

How close are these records to the true beliefs held by these early Scandinavians? Expert opinions are mixed. Some scholars suggest that when they were first recorded, the Vikings had been converts to Christianity for two centuries and that the skalds that recorded these myths were undoubtedly influenced by their Christian beliefs and their own views on the ancient myths. This, experts argue, is why there are so many similarities between Viking paganism and Christianity.

Viking Poems and Sagas

An Oral Tradition

For many Viking families, daily life was a struggle. Providing the basics of food, water and shelter and combating the elements of a northern climate was a constant challenge. Thanks to an adventuresome spirit, strong family ties and loyalty to their chieftain, the Vikings not only survived but also created a culture rich in stories of adventure, conquest, daring and bravery. Their stories recorded their beliefs in powerful pagan gods and the heroism of the most notorious characters among them.

Unlike the Greeks and Romans, the Vikings didn't record their tales of adventure, the events that shaped the Viking Age or their pagan religious beliefs. They had neither pen and ink nor any kind of parchment on which to preserve such writings. Unlike the Roman alphabet, which was being used by other Europeans to record their past, the Viking used the twenty-four straight-lined characters of their alphabet to label personal belongings, to strengthen to their weapons, to engrave their memorial stones and to tell fortunes. Consequently, there are no writings attributed to the Vikings. Several centuries would pass beyond the end of the Viking age before any tales were recorded.
The Storytellers

The Vikings didn't need to record their history to preserve it for themselves. They were storytellers, a gift, they believed was given to them by their all-powerful god Odin. The Vikings prided themselves in remembering their stories by heart and then passing them on to future generations. Called skalds, these storytellers were revered by Viking kings and ordinary Vikings alike. Skalds were often hired by kings who wanted their bravery and greatness known throughout and beyond their kingdoms. There are tales of storytellers whose lives were spared because of their abilities to flatter such kings.

The Vikings also used storytelling as a form of entertainment- a way of passing long winter nights and of keeping their spirits up while trading or raiding far from home. Through these tales, the Vikings ensured the details of their religious beliefs, lofty deeds, family feuds and harrowing adventures were passed on from one generation to the next. Although the stories were likely embellished by the skalds, they nonetheless preserve some truth of events that occurred across Scandinavia before and during Viking times.
Impact of Christianity

By the turn of the first millennium, much of Norway and Denmark and later Sweden had converted to Christianity. Most Christian Vikings gave up their pagan beliefs. This ended the storytelling that had so enriched their lives and preserved their pagan religion.

In Iceland, things were different. Being isolated, the Icelandic Viking population embraced Christianity reluctantly and later than their Scandinavian relatives. And even after conversion, many Icelandic Vikings kept some aspects of their pagan beliefs alive. Pendants that had once only depicted Thor's hammer, for example, now blended the hammer and the Christian cross.

When Snorri Sturluson wrote the Eddas in the 13th century, all of Scandinavia was Christian. Being a scholar, Sturluson would have been quite knowledgeable of the Biblical version of creation as well as the characters in ancient Greek and Roman mythologies. In fact, it is easy to see similarities between the three mythologies and the influence of Christian theology on some Viking myths.
The Eddas

As the Vikings gradually converted to Christianity, the stories of their Norse gods and Viking heroes faded from memory. If it were not for the reluctance of the Icelanders to give up the old ways, most of what we know about Viking religion and the colourful characters of the Viking Age would have disappeared a millennia ago.

By the 13th century, Icelanders too became concerned that knowledge of the old Viking religion would soon be lost. An Icelandic poet, historian and chieftain named Snorri Sturluson started recording the old Norse oral religious traditions. He wrote them in long poems and collectively called them the Prose Edda. These poems explain how the universe was formed and how humans came to inhabit the earth. They also contain a key to understanding these myths and poetic language in which they were scribed. Written in 1223, a hundred years after the end of the Viking Age, the poems are more like a series of folktales than the sacred text of a religion.

In 1273, another Icelandic poet named Seimund the Wise, recorded a second set of Norse oral traditions. These thirty-four poems, composed during the Viking age, are tales of events that are older than the ones recorded by Snorri Sturluson and are collectively called the Poetic or Elder (meaning older) Eddas. The Poetic Eddas include stories about the Vikings gods, who, like ordinary Vikings, struggled with living and found themselves fighting the forces of evil both inside and outside their realm.

Together, the Prose and Poetic Eddas are considered the earliest examples of Icelandic Literature. They are very important records of human history. They were written in the ancient Icelandic language which is still spoken in Iceland today. Although some pieces are missing, what remains gives us some understanding of Viking mythology.
The Sagas

Knowledge of the heroic figures of the Viking Age are recorded in another set of writings called sagas- a Norse word meaning tales. The forty sagas include descriptions of historical events in Iceland and voyages of discovery across the North Atlantic from Norway to Vinland. They were written during the late 13th and 14th centuries.

The sagas are records of Icelandic family histories. They are filled with tales of exploration, adventure, greed, feuds, jealousies, justice and even romance. Because they were written several centuries after the events they described occurred, their accuracy has been debated among scholars of the Viking Age for many years. Even though the sagas were embellished by their authors, scholars believe they were based on actual events. This was proven true when, in 1962, the Greenlandia and Erik Sagas were used to locate the only authenticated Norse presence in North America- the remains of a Viking camp at L'Anse aux Meadows on the island of Newfoundland. The sagas and the Eddas are beyond any doubt Iceland's most important contribution to world literature.

The Eddas and sagas weren't written on paper. Instead, they were written on vellum- sheepskin or calf skin- using bearberries as ink. It is fortunate for us that the 13th century Viking skalds chose vellum. Unlike paper which quickly fades and rots, vellum is more resistant to rot and preserves the ink much better than paper.
Other Writings on the Vikings

The other writings that exist on the Vikings were written by Europeans who came in contact with the Vikings through their missionary work and trade. There are accounts of the Norse recorded by monks whose defenseless monasteries were often raided and plundered by the Vikings. It is not surprising that these writings portray the Vikings in the worst possible way and except for recording historical events, are unreliable. For many years, these writings were our only source of knowledge of the Vikings and are largely responsible for the bad reputation given to all Vikings, a reputation that has lasted even into modern times.

Images of the Vikings as plunderers and marauders is not disputed by historians. Today the Eddas and sagas and new archaeological finds suggest that not all Vikings lived this life-style. Many were simple fishermen, farmers, merchants and traders.

The Valkyries

Viking Religion

Without the benefit of science to explain the world around them, the Vikings must have felt like they were living in a very mysterious place. To explain their world- its thunder and lightning, clouds, frost, dew, storms, ice, fire and changing seasons- the Vikings created a series of religious beliefs we call paganism. What the Vikings saw in the natural world was in some way controlled by the actions of a series of gods and goddesses. These deities lived in a heavenly realm called Asgard. But, they often visited the earth and played a role in the destiny of every Viking life. Today, these pagan gods and goddesses are part of Viking mythology.

One group of characters in Viking mythology (and in the mythology of the Celts of Ireland) were the Valkyrie. They are depicted on Viking pendants and amulets and are mentioned in Viking poems called Eddas. Their story is truly a fascinating one!
Battle-maidens

In Old Norse, the word Valkyrjr, means "choosers of the slain". In Viking mythology, the Valkyrie were the nine daughters of Odin. At his wish, they flew their horses over Viking battlefields and choose who would die in the coming battle. After the carnage was over, they returned to the battlefield as a raven and selected the souls of half the warriors who had died an heroic death. (Crows often appeared after a battle to pick at the bodies of the dead.) The Valkyrie carried these souls to Valhalla- Odin's banquet hall in the heavenly realm of Asgard. The remaining heroic souls were taken by a Viking goddess named Freya as she passed over the battlefield in her cat-drawn chariot. The Valkyrie also rode over the sea to snatch dying Vikings from their doomed longships.

The Valkyrie were depicted as young, beautiful, but fierce women who dressed in full armor only when riding their horses. They did not, however, engage in battle themselves.
Odin's maidens

Upon arriving in Valhalla, the Valkyrie replaced their armor with long white robes. They greeted the soul of each slain warrior with a horn of mead- the honey sweet drink of the Viking gods served in a bull's horn. The warriors then feasted on boar and trained as members of Odin's army. The wounds inflicted during these training battles miraculously disappeared at the beginning of each meal.
Swan-maidens and Wish Maidens

The Valkyrie were also known as swan-maidens. When they weren't collecting souls and welcoming slain warriors into Valhalla, they dressed in a cloak of swan feathers and flew to the earth to bathe in its cool streams. Norse myths said that if a man could catch and hold a swan or get a swan cloak, the Valkyrie could grant him a wish or become his wife. After nine years of marriage, she was free to return to Asgard.
The Valkyrie in Viking Jewelry

The image on the right is a Viking pendant. It was likely attached to a necklace. It depicts a Valkyrie. Notice her long flowing robe, the horn of mead in her hand, the torc (a kind of neck ring) and the bangles around her wrist.

Called amulets, these kinds of pendants were worn for protection. A Valkyrie worn by a Viking warrior was meant to protect the warrior in battle. It would, he believed, help him to be brave in death and help guarantee his soul a place in Valhalla.
Clouds, Dew and Northern Lights

Many Norse myths contain stories of their gods. Some of these stories are tales of the adventures of their gods. Others are the Vikings' attempt to explain the world around them. Lightning, for example was explained using the god Thor and his mighty hammer. Wind and storms were caused by a swift pass of their god Odin while riding his eight-legged horse through the air. The Vikings also used the Valkyries to explain certain weather conditions. To the Norse, the Valkyries' horses were white clouds, lightning came from their gleaming swords and dew and frost from their horses' manes. The Vikings also believed that if the Valkyries rode at night, the glistening of their armor created the Aurora Borealis (the Northern Lights), the dancing lights that appear in the night sky in the northern regions of the earth the Vikings called home.
Legacy of the Valkyrie

The legacy of the Valkyrie lives on in the word "valour", a reference to heroism in battle.

Loki: God of Mischief & Fire

Viking Religion

Without the benefit of science to explain the world around them, the Vikings must have felt they were living in a very mysterious place. To explain their world- its thunder and lightning, clouds, frost, dew, storms, ice, fire and changing seasons-, the Vikings created a series of beliefs, and probably borrowed some from the Celts, to create their pagan religion. What they saw in the natural world was explained not by scientific observation, but by the actions of a series of gods and goddesses. These deities lived in a heavenly realm called Asgard, but often visited the earth to play a role in the destiny of every Viking life. Today, these gods and goddesses are considered part of Viking mythology.
A Giant and a God

Loki is probably the most fascinating and complex of all the characters in Norse mythology. An offspring of two giants- the enemy of the Vikings gods- Loki swore an oath and became a blood brother of Odin. This act allowed Loki into Asgard and gave him some of the same powers and privileges possessed by Odin and the other gods. Loki quickly tested these new powers, wavering in his love of their good side and their dark side. Before long, the powers of the dark side won and Loki became sinister.
Loki the Trickster

In most Norse myths, Loki is portrayed as a prankster and a trickster. His misadventures often involve creating great problems for the Norse gods and for the inhabitants of the other worlds. When things seemed at their very worse, Loki often provided the remedy to save the day. His loyalty was often torn between the giants and the gods of Asgard and in trying to please both, he often found himself in deep trouble. Because of his wit and his cunning and mischievous character, Loki earned the name "God of Mischief". He was also considered the "God of Fire".

Loki really couldn't help but be crafty. He had magical powers no other giant or anyone outside of the Asgard had. He could travel freely between the various Norse worlds and often accompanied Odin and Thor on their journeys and adventures throughout the universe. The gods often sought his advice, yet when they followed his plan, he sometimes tricked them into dangerous situations.

The Offspring of Loki

Loki had a couple of wives and many mistresses. He was the father of at least five children. Three of them came from his marriage to a frost giant named Angrboda. They inherited Loki's shifty character and were a great threat to the Norse gods.

One of Loki's children was named Fenrir. He grew from a friendly puppy all the gods loved to a mean shape-shifting wolf that frightened the gods so much they had him leached, a task that cost the god Tyr his hand. Another child was named Midgard. He became a serpent. The Aesir threw Midgard into the sea where it grew so large it encircled the earth and bit its own tail. The last of the three was Hel, the Queen of Death. Half of her was as white as snow representing life while the other half was as black as night representing death. Hel lived in Hela, the Underworld. This was the land of final rest for all Vikings except a select number of warriors who joined Odin in Valhalla.
Loki the Provider

Despite his antics, the gods tolerated Loki. After all, he was the brother of Odin and no one wanted to offend the most powerful of the Viking gods. Besides, it was Loki's trickery that provided the gods with many of their most valued treasures; Thor with his mighty hammer, Sif her golden hair and Odin his deadly spear and magical rings.

Shape-shifting was another special power Loki gained from his brotherhood with Odin. Like all gods, Loki was capable of assuming the shape of any living thing at anytime. He even created creatures of his own to play tricks. It was usually when Loki assumed other forms that he got himself and the gods into the most trouble. But, sometimes there were benefits because of Loki's pranks. One time, when he shape-shifted into a mare to solve a problem he had created, Loki gave birth to a horse with eight legs. He gave the colt to Odin. Named Sleipnir, Odin used the horse to travel to the underworld, through the air and over the water. Sleipnir's eight legs ensured it would never tire. Odin is often pictured on Viking picture stones riding this horse.

Loki also used his shape-shifting ability to hide his true identity. But, shape-shifting was not without its disadvantages. When he took the form of an particular animal, he experienced the same limitations as that animal had in the real world. Once when he was a falcon, for example, he was captured and held by his feet.
The Death of Baldur: Loki's Last Act of Treachery

Sometimes the tricks Loki played backfired on him and the trickster suffered the consequences of his own reckless behaviour. The gods' toleration of Loki ended on one of these occasions. Baldur, the God of Peace and Light and the only son of Odin and Frigga, was killed as a result of one of Loki's malicious tricks. The story "Baldur's Death" is very popular in Norse methodology and marks the beginning of the prophesy of the end of the universe as the Norse believed it existed.

The myth begins with Baldur's dream that he was going to die. Frigga, his goddess mother, decided to protect her kind and gentle son from danger. She traveled the world asking every living and non-living thing not to hurt Baldur. All agreed. Thinking it harmless, Frigga overlooked the simple mistletoe plant that grew just outside the kingdom.

When they gathered, the gods enjoyed throwing deadly objects at Baldur only to see his invincibility protect him from death. Loki, trying to learn what was happening, changed into a pestering old woman and questioned Frigga about the game. Loki listened with interest as Frigga explained how nothing could hurt or kill her son. He asked if there were any exceptions. Unable to lie, even to protect her son, Frigga told of the mistletoe she had overlooked. Not wasting any time, Loki took some mistletoe and fashioned it into a sharp dart and joined the gathering of gods. He approached Hod, Baldur's blind half brother who was not participating in the game, and tricked him into throwing the deadly dart at his sibling. The dart struck Baldur in the heart, killing him instantly.

Distraught, Frigga assembled all the gods and asked that one of them travel to the underworld to ask Hela, the Goddess of Death and keeper of the underworld, to spare her son. Hermod, the God of Courage and another of Odin's sons, volunteered for the nine day journey. Hela agreed to Frigga's request only if everyone mourned Baldur's death. Hermod returned to Asgard with Hela's condition to spare Baldur of his fate. Soon all living things and even the mountains and rivers wept for Baldur. Loki, who was now disguised as a female giantess, refused saying she would only shed a dry tear. Baldur was doomed to stay in Hela.
The Capture of Loki

The gods were angered by the giantess who they now believed to be Loki in disguise. Fearing his fate at their hands, Loki fled into the mountains to hide. He built a house with doors on each wall so he could watch for and escape from the gods who he knew would be looking for him. One night he wondered what the gods would use to capture him and invented a fishing net. Surprised by the gods' sudden appearance, Loki threw the net into a fire, shape-shifted to a salmon and hid beneath a waterfall in a nearby stream.

From his thrown in Asgard, Odin spotted Loki and sent Thor to capture him. Finding the ashes of the net and guessing what it was, Thor had another made and waded into the river. Each of the three times he cast the net, Loki escaped. On the fourth cast, Loki, still a salmon, leaped out of the water to evade the net yet again. This time Thor grabbed and held the trickster by the tail. Loki was taken to a cave deep within the earth where he was bound by unbreakable iron chains. The cave was the home of a poisonous snake which dripped its venom on Loki's face. It caused Loki great pain. His devoted goddess wife Sigyn tried to comfort him by catching the poison in a bowl. When the bowl was full, she left Loki to empty it. The poison covered his face once again. The muscle spasms caused by the pain shook the earth. To the Vikings, Loki's squirming was the cause of earthquakes.

Ragnarok: The Final Battle

The Norse myths prophesy that Loki will free himself just as Ragnarok, the battle between good and evil, begins. Loki will join his three off-spring and lead the forces of death and evil against the gods. It is prophesied that no one will survive, but under a resurrected Baldur, the universe will begin anew. This time it will be a universe of peace.

Why is the wily Loki included in so many Norse myths? To the Norse, life was a struggle between the forces of good and evil. Odin, represented the good. Considered a shadow of Odin, Loki represented the dark side. The tales of conflicts between good and evil and between reason and order and chaos served as lessons for the Vikings in their daily lives.